Pseudo genes

In most (all?) species, distinguishable strains change a core set of genes in vulgar; usually these egests up around 80% of apiece exertion's cistron set (emblematic extent ~70%-90%). These core genes are usually syntenic. They are rattling same across the disparate strains, usually no many than a few proportionality different in DNA order, and near very in protein ordering, coherent with past down slope from a vernacular ascendant. These shared-by-descent genes are what justifies grouping the strains as representatives of a only 'species'Subterminal nighttime Jon Eisner posted around a new material by Chih-Horng Kuo and Queen Ochman, near the evolutionary divinity of bacterial pseudo genes (PLoS Biology: The Quenching Mechanics of Bacterial Pseudo genes). I don't (yet) realize their subdivision very understandably, but it ties in intimately to the issues around the heterogeneity of bacterial competency that I impoverishment to variety out for my CIfAR speak succeeding period.Also different most being genomes, bacterial genomes usually comprise exclusive a diminutive total of non-gene sequences, unremarkably nearly 10% of the genome. This is near exclusively intervene; introns are very thin and usually take other genes (excisionases and militarization genes).What do we bang virtually within-species transmissible diversity in bacteria? The big proceeds is go genome and ancillary genome.
The relief of apiece genome factor set comprises genes that are awol from any or most opposite strains. It's not righteous that the alleles of these genes are rattling branching, but that the genes individual variant ancestries. Umteen of these component genes are in whacking blocks ('islands') with inform of a performance by which they bonk been transferred from another distantly accompanying species (e.g. phage, integron or dna sequences, flanking RNA genes). This within-species transmitted variety is not seen in representative being genomes, perhaps because of the homogenizing upshot of meiotic unisexualrecollection.

DNA is walloping

They do offer few idiotic evolutionary just-so stories, such as that B. subtilis has prophage in its genome so cells can lyse low troubled conditions, allowing different cells to select up their genes.Competency in B. subtilis is a bit of a makeup nightmare too - when substance runs out most of the culture forms spores but virtually 10% of the cells instead turn qualified. Piece efficient they're unable to flex their DNA (I conceive) or septate their cells, so they acquire into longer filaments that compute into umpteen make cells erst the ability fit has passed (I saw the film so I pair this is honorable). Nobody who works on B. subtilis competence seems involved by this....I had already celebrated nearly most of the B. subtilis complications (tho' not the DNA replication/septation defend), but state reminded of them prefab me start cerebration roughly alternatives. The firstly I content of was Acinetobacter. These guys are wanton to change and nutritionally sagittiform, similar B. subtilis. Their competence usage appears to be a lot simpler - there's no agamogenesis engaged. Cells in lab society evince all the ability genes when they get into stationary period, but they can't actually direct up DNA until they're thinned into smart substance. Then they gradually decline competency during function development. This would alter I'm leaning towards doing the experiment that tests whether effective microorganism good nutritionally from the DNA they aver up. There are two main issues to concur. Primary is the designing of the inquiry, indorse is which organism to use.I was originally thought of simly measure radiophone ontogeny in job with and without another DNA. This instrument work only if the impression of DNA is walloping. For it to be macro, the cells module poverty to head up quite a lot of DNA while they are ontogeny. If they exclusive position up DNA when they run out of opposite nutrients, the feeling to carry differences in growth or aliveness over lank periods in stationary state, rather similar what Steve Finkel has through with E. coli.An choice to growing experiments is measuring competition. This would require mixing cells that can hold up DNA with cells that can't (likely cells with a strong in a DNA uptake cistron), and ontogenesis them in matter with and without DNA. This ontogeny could be done over multiple dilution/growth cycles, potentially amplifying any advantage of DNA uptake. Using a non-competent being provides a good intrinsical mechanism, but it's useful that the sport not reduce ontogeny under conditions where DNA is not visible. A underage feeling might be standard, but I don't essential to bang to use statistical wizardry to pretense the appearance should this be done with? I wouldn't use H. influenzae - their nutritional requirements are too analyzable and the uptake specificity is a big complexity. My freshman cerebration was Bioweapon subtilis. I've worked with them before, and they are casual to act effective and can be grown on rattling undecomposable defined media. So I spent much of yesterday metropolis writing near the ordinance of competency in B. subtilis.What a restrictive nightmare! I don't bang whether B. subtilis gene conception is intrinsically composite or whether the fill who transmute on it upright delight in digging up solon complexities, but nobody seems to be trying to change usable

DNA fragments

Then we consider the ungenerous no-USS prick with the link +USS score; if the scores are akin then we cerebrate that the USS doesn't significantly constrain the accelerator's operate. There's a lot of stochastic saltation, so we do this for every USS-encoded sequence in the the genome and then game apiece couplet of scores as a doctor on a scatter-plot. Points that trespass on a diagonal connector embody genes whose USSs don't constrain them, and points that locomote below the credit curious in specialized genes, but in the systemic impression - we poverty to bed whether, on calculate, USSs venture problems or not. A origination reasoning done age ago suggested they don't, but the serve from this new landscaped psychotherapy module be riveting in any suffere Patch I've been doing added things a pardner has been working tumid on a comparative genomics work that will verify us how much consequence uptake signalize sequences (USS) love on cistron usefulness. Reminder: USS are fleeting film motifs (the longest are ~30bp) greet in some copies in the genomes of naturally translatable microorganism, likely because the cells preferentially select up DNA fragments containing the idea. Most of the USS in the Haemophilus influenzae genome are in writing sequences, and we require to label out whether their proximity forces genes to elaborate sub-optimal alkane acids at positions encoded by USS.
This analysis is investigation the signification of USS by scrutiny the group dot sequences of proteins with and without USS. For each H. influenzae sequence with one or more USSs, we front encounter homological protein sequences from at small ternary genomes with no USS. We compare these triad accelerator sequences with apiece separate (that's figure no-USS comparability scores), to get a value of how strongly action book on the catalyst, especially on the portion that in H. influenzae is nominal by a USS. Then we likeness each of the iii with the H. influenzae sequence (that's trio +USS comparison scores).

Sleep Science

Have you ever wished there were more hours in the day? I know someone who insists on extending his days by consuming energy drinks. In his opinion, sleeping is a waste of precious time. Unfortunately, for most humans, 8 hours of sleep is required to function properly. Some people can manage with far less sleep, which for those of us who really NEED 8 hours of shut-eye, is hard to imagine. For me, sometimes it seems even 8 hours doesn’t suffice, which is evidenced by my morning alarm-snooze-alarm-snooze routine, and my sofa sleeping habit in the evenings.
gene called DEC2 that causes it’s carriers to become “short sleepers”, meaning they need less sleep! Two women, a mother and daughter, who have this mutation require only 6 hours of sleep without a negative impact. Apparently they can do this because they have a more efficient sleep, with more intense REM states, which was observed in mice with the same mutations.Why is this important, you may ask? Someday this will help scientists in the treatment of certain debilitating sleep disorders. On a more selfish note, it might even help scientists to develop a biological treatment that allows us regular folk to function just as well as we already do, with less sleep. Just think of the things you could accomplish with a few extra hours!

Mendelian inheritance

As a teacher, I find that the presentation of classical Mendelian inheritance is important, but can be misleading. Do genes always follow the rules that the “Father of Genetics” observed in his garden? Don’t get me wrong, I appreciate Mendel and his contribution to genetics, but the exceptions seem much more interesting!For example, many genes are pleiotropic, meaning they affect more than one phenotype. How about the recent development on red heads and anasthetics? I happen to live with a red head, from a long line of red heads, so in our family this was a topic of discussion for days. The mutation that causes red hair, also induces the production of a hormone that stimulates a brain receptor associated with sensitivity to pain. In short, if you have red hair, you are likely to need more Novacaine at the dentist.Dentists supposedly have known this for ages. I wonder how many other interesting pleiotropies like this one have been observed, and are touted as old wives-tales (or dentist tales, as it were), but may actually have scientific validity

junk DNA

Referred to by her team as ‘array capture re-sequencing’, the procedure uses regions of human exons (lengths of DNA that code for proteins) to probe for (or fish out) the Neanderthal eons from contaminated DNA samples. Through the technique they were able to identify 88 differences (in a total of only 83 proteins) between human and Neandertal protein sequences. Amazing! The majority of our DNA does not code for protein or RNA and does not seem to regulate how the information is used. Sometimes referred to as “junk” DNA, these regions make up about 98.5 % of our genome. Is this DNA really junk? Scientists have recently identified a section of “junk” DNA that can regain function and cause disease. The section of DNA is made of repeat regions of the same sequence. They found that individuals who have 1-10 repeats on the end of chromosome 4 can develop one of the most common forms of muscular dystrophy, FSHD. The goal now is to identify a way to turn off this once non-functioning gene. One of the important insights from the resurrection of this gene is that although some diseases can be easily explained, others result from very complicated cellular interactions. What other information will our “junk”DNA reveal in the future? With the completion of the Neandertal genome by the team of Dr. Svante Paabo and a closer look at their proteins by Gregory Hannon’s team at CSHL, scientists reveal incredible similarities between Neandertals and humans.Neandertals, the extinct species of what are most likely our closest relatives, lived on earth at the same time as our human ancestors but died out about 30,000 years ago. With the sequence of their genome now complete, we can compare the DNA to humans and chimpanzees to learn more about what makes humans unique as a species.The discovery of fossils is an exciting link to our past. Although the fossil bones do contain DNA, much of it is contaminated. Dr. Emily Hodges at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory developed a technique to quickly identify and amplify specific portions of contaminated DNA accurately.

Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is the science of designing a human being's genes to fit specified criteria. You could determine your potential child's future by choosing its gender, skin colour, level of intelligence - the list is infinite. Genetic engineering is an amazing science advancing at such a fast-pace, but because of moral and ethical concerns, research into this new technology has been limited. In his article, 'Will genetic engineering produce a master race and a servile multitude"' published in the Pectator magazine 1999, Paul Johnson explores the perils of genetic engineering and the ethical dilemma facing scientists and the intellectual community. He asserts that genetic engineering will create a caste society consisting of a genetically enhanced overclass and a suppressed, skilless underclass. He argues that playing god with genetics is immoral and that it will bring into being a society "biologically evil in ways we can scarcely imagine." Genetic engineering is the science of designing a human being's genes to fit specified criteria. You could determine your potential child's future by choosing its gender, skin colour, level of intelligence - the list is infinite

Genetic Codes

A number of companies are sprouting up seeking to map a person’s genetic code for a fee. However, California recently interceded by requiring customers to consult a doctor before acquiring such potentially weighty information about their genetic makeup.The study, which appears in the August issue of the American Sociological Review, claims that variations in three genes are associated with males who grow up to become more violent than others.But the research indicates that other factors, such as family, friends and school, also have an impact and help account for the differences among those with genetic dispositions toward delinquency. The team studied information from 1,100 boys in grades 7–12. Variations in the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene, the dopamine transporter 1 (DAT1) gene and the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) gene were linked to delinquency, but “Positive influences appeared to reduce the effect of the genes, while an absence of positive influences amplified the effects,” according to Canwest News Service.For example, having regular meals with parents served to moderate the effects of the “risky” DRD2 gene, whereas not having those meals amplified the aggression.Another recent study said genetics played a large part in the extent of an individual’s political involvement.The desire to learn about human genetic predispositions is gaining popularity, and not only in the scientific community. A number of companies are sprouting up seeking to map a person’s genetic code for a fee. However, California recently interceded by requiring customers to consult a doctor before acquiring such potentially weighty information about their genetic makeup.

DNA Research

The results of this global research can become crucial for every single person. The information that people are going to discover about themselves may considerably change their views on national differences. The conclusion each of us will come to is that all people come from one group with the difference of thousands generations. Enthusiasts of genografic project unite to collect the DNA database all over the world so to make every person aware of the place where his or her ancestors come from. The National Geographic Society together with IBM initiate a global project where more than 10,000 inhabitants will have their DNA tested to make up a huge database. Efforts of well-known scientists in geography and genetic medicine will reside in 10 world regions to find traces of human ancestry. Aside from DNA information collected from indigenous people, other people can also have their genetic data tested and take part in the research on voluntary basis. Scott Woodward, one of John Hopkins University researches emphasizes that a person's DNA holds an enormous amount of information to discover, including the origins of all human beings.As geographic location once became a major factor to entail differences in genetic record, this study can reveal the unknown realities of human existence. Admittedly, Africa is the place where all human beings originate; the later distribution of people has an imprint of their place of origin. The location where each person's ancestor lived is hidden information within one's individual gene.The results of this global research can become crucial for every single person. The information that people are going to discover about themselves may considerably change their views on national differences. The conclusion each of us will come to is that all people come from one group with the difference of thousands generations.

Marketing in Pharma Industry

Marketer will increase the cognitive process as well as response time for the brand through DTC (Direct-to-Consumer) advertising, interactive digital media, seminars, symposia and other events. Similarly, it will also be heavily skewed towards point of purchase media so that every time the customer is reminded.DTC advertising has its own limitations from the point of view of high involvement and high risk conditions of medical consumer like patient. It is just not possible for a patient to understand drug interactions, dosage interactions and other pharmacokinetic and dynamic repercussions which may or may not adversely affect the patient enough till it is communicated. In DTC advertising, what you are really creating is a word of mouth so that beyond DTC medium, word of mouth medium is more powerful. It is a double-edged weapon. Ideal format for DTC advertising should be intense, interactive, purchase or action oriented and also for low involvement as well as low risk products. PR has been very widely used to evoke right set of customers, power of PR in branding is unique and that needs to be exploited.Yes, pharmaceutical companies should have communication strategy besides main strategy
strategic direction to a brand needs to be first given on the basis of position which the brand wants to acquire in a category space, by developing growth drivers and barriers with a specific quantification and then the feedback mechanism will make this direction more relevant as you progress towards success or towards failure of a brand.Outcome is usually not possible to figure out and hence we call it as a direction, over theposition of a brand gets strengthen and brand occupies critical mass during its positioning, the strategy then works out better and needs less corrective actions unless there is once again a turmoil in the market.

Pharmacy industrial Growth

Since drafting the State Biotech Policy in 2001, the sector has witnessed significant growth in terms of attaining critical mass and infrastructure development, which was a result of the perennial and combined efforts of the government, the industry and the academia in the State. The policy has provided -- single window clearance system, sales tax of one per cent, provision of rebate based on the employment opportunity created and capital subsidy of 25 per cent of the total project cost is offered to those companies that are setting up biotech related infrastructure in Genome Valley, the country's first biotechnology and pharmaceutical cluster has been one of the earliest initiatives of the state government. This cluster houses, a world class centre for leading edge business driven research and is India's first such venture created in collaboration between research community and industry. During the phase I, about 10 laboratories had been operational from June 2000. In the second phase, 100 per cent laboratory space has been booked by seven companies. In the phase III, about 20,000 sq. ft of modular wet laboratory space is being developed. A Life Sciences Incubation Centre has been set up in the park with an investment of Rs 3 crore with eight labs, of which four will be exclusively for biotech and the remaining labs will be for chemistry.Can you tell us about the international companies that have set up base in the Genome Valley? Many overseas companies have shown interest to set up base in and around Hyderabad. Few companies have already set up their base. For instance, Taros Custom Chemicals, Germany, involved in providing research services to pharma and biotech companies has established its R&D facility in focused on R & D, registration and sale of generic dossiers, contract manufacturing and packaging of human therapeutics and veterinary drugs is in the process of starting its operations soon at Hyderabad. NND Biomedical Data Systems and Albany Molecular Research, both from USA have evinced keen interest.

nutraceutical versus pharma

Now the population who consumes medicine whether it pharma or nutraceutical consists of both sick and healthy patients. They exhibit their behaviour of exhibiting their choice in selection of medicines. Coupled with Internet education and their awareness, they feel, they are making the right choice even in high involvement and high-risk products. As a result, they have created a new class of medical consumers. If you look at medicines, they are healthcare from products. In fact, it's a composite healthcare which cannot be completed at the cusp of delivery mechanism unless medicines are included in his delivery mechanism. In order to grasp the vastness of healthcare and core of pharmaceuticals and medicines, it's important how marketer should look at this new light group of medical consumers? How should they communicate with these educated medical consumers DTC advertising and communication
One of the ways pharma industry has tackled this issue all over the world is through DTC advertising and communication. In fact there are regulations which absent at the moment in India, are very crucial to ensure that the new medium i.e. DTC advertising and communication becomes effective, safe and scalable

Pharma business behaviour

Out of almost 41 million people who are supposed to be diabetics in India, you will observe that hardly 4 million patients are taking adequate care of themselves through medicines while others might be taking care of their health through alternate medicines or other traditional methods. Having such vast gap between what can accrue through pharma industry what is not really creating in the market for the industry needs to be noticed by all marketers. What should my mind matters is intense and exhausted patient education. It's possible through patient communication As demographics of India are creating a very powerful force for growth of every industry, pharma is not an exception. Healthy population as well as sick population is continuously getting updated on medical issues through Internet. However, there are two basic classes of population from the point of pharmaceuticals view. The attitude of these two classes is so divergent that the behaviour which they display towards consumption of medicine is very different.These two classes are sufferers and non-sufferers. Sufferers tend to become hypochondriac and they ensure that they comply with the medicines while non-sufferers believe that nothing is wrong with them and perhaps will go wrong to their health till they cross the border of sufferers.

Pharmacy practice in Pharmacogenetic

Objective: To develop a genotype exercise to improve pharmacy students' comprehension of pharmacogenetic principles that apply to patient care.Design: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was collected during class from 10 student volunteers and subjected to genotype analysis. The results were presented to the class and discussed in the context of a patient genetic counseling session. Students completed a survey instrument regarding their attitudes toward this learning experience.Assessment: Students indicated that the exercise engaged them with the course content and would positively influence their ability to apply pharmacogenetic principles to patient care.Conclusion: An applied genotype exercise enhanced learning of pharmacogenetic principles. Based on these findings, conducting a genotype exercise in a large classroom setting is feasible in terms of time and expense, and meaningful in terms of student satisfactio

Pharmacogenomics

Objectives: To implement and evaluate the effectiveness of a laboratory component involving deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) testing to a required pharmacogenomics course.
Design: Second-year doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) students extracted DNA from saliva samples, evaluated DNA quantity, and performed genotyping analysis of single nucleotide polymorphisms by fast-throughput technology. The students calculated the frequency of polymorphic alleles of the gene encoding arylamine N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2); performed stratification of the class into fast, slow, and intermediate acetylators; and discussed the clinical significance of genetic analysis in patients.
Assessment: An attitudinal survey tool with standardized scaled questions was developed and administered to evaluate whether the goals of the laboratory had been achieved. The student responses to the survey demonstrated that introduction of modern, fast-throughput genotyping technologies in the academic process facilitated comprehension of the potential that pharmacogenomics holds for pharmacy practice.
Conclusions: A laboratory session in pharmacogenomics helped students understand the relevance of pharmacogenomic analysis for use in planning/creating individualized medication regimens.

Curriculum Dpharm

The Pharm.D. curriculum is designed to produce a scientifically and technically competent pharmacist who can apply this education in such a manner as to provide maximum health care services to patients. Students are provided with the opportunity to gain greater experience in patient close cooperative relationships with health practitioners. It is the goal of all pharmacy schools to prepare pharmacists who can assume expanded responsibilities in the care of patients and assure the provision of rational drug therapy.If you examine several pharmacy college catalogs, you will notice that courses are similar but NOT identical. There are no rigid rules on curricula enforced on colleges, but a common core of subjects is found in every college of pharmacy curriculum. You will find that certain colleges emphasize certain subjects, and thus place less emphasis on others. Since you will likely examine catalogs of colleges that interest you, this summary will touch largely on the core of subjects common to most colleges of pharmacy.The Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) degree program requires at least 2-years of specific pre-professional (undergraduate) coursework followed by 4-academic years (or 3-calendar years) of professional study. Pharmacy colleges and schools may accept students directly from high school for both the pre-pharmacy and pharmacy curriculum, or after completion of the college course prerequisites. The majority of students enter a pharmacy program with 3 or more years of college experience. College graduates who enroll in a pharmacy program must complete the full 4-academic years (or 3-calendar) years of professional study to earn the Pharm.D. degree. The AACP does not track the availability of accelerated programs of study for individuals with a baccalaureate degree in a related health career or science field Pharmaceutical chemistry emphasizes the application of chemical sciences to pharmacy. Some of the courses deal with chemicals used as medicines-their use, nature, preparation and preservation. In other courses, attention is given to the processes and tests used to determine the purity and strength of a chemical or its pharmaceutical form. The pharmacy student learns, for example, how to find out if aspirin is pure, or how to determine how much vitamin C is contained in a particular solution or tablet.Pharmacognosy deals with the nature and sources of "natural drugs"-those obtained from plants or animals, either directly or indirectly. For example, with a drug such as quinine, this study involves the source, the commercial production, the marketing, the chief pure chemicals contained in the drug, and the uses made of the drug and its derivatives. Pharmacology is concerned with understanding the action of drugs in the body. Attention is given to the effects of various doses of each medicinal substance and to the different ways in which medicine can be introduced into the body. The effects of poisons and the means to overcome them are studied in toxicology. Generally, animal tests are required to learn the strength of drugs. Physicians know a great deal about pharmacology and toxicology; yet, as the expert about drugs, the pharmacist must maintain this knowledge to an even greater extent. Business management is important for graduates who plan to enter community pharmacy and some institutional practices. This area is commonly designated pharmacy administration. Instruction frequently includes principles of basic economics, accounting, management, computer applications, marketing, merchandising, and legal phases of the profession of pharmacy. Courses in pharmacy administration are especially helpful to pharmacists who become executives in pharmacies, hospitals, service wholesale houses, or manufacturing. Pharmacy practice is offered in a variety of courses by colleges of pharmacy. These courses are designed to give an appreciation of the background and nature of the profession, to familiarize students with the many skilled processes used in pharmacy, to introduce the various forms of medicines, and to teach them how to dispense medication accurately and skillfully. Instruction in pharmacy practice again emphasizes the fact that pharmacy blends science and technology, and that throughout the professional services of the pharmacist there is a continuous responsibility both to the patient and the physician. Instruction in the pharmaceutical sciences and in the professional areas (except for most of the administration courses) includes some laboratory work. This laboratory work is both traditional and clinical. Laboratory instruction explores various scientific phenomena, as well as studies the clinical application of the principles of pharmaceutical sciences. Pharmacy practice is that area within the pharmacy curriculum which deals with patient care, placing an emphasis on drug therapy. Pharmacy practice seeks to develop a patient-oriented attitude in the student. The education of pharmacists who are able to meet the needs of society can be attained only through a careful blending of theoretical course work and clinical experiences

Role of a Pharmacist

While responsibilities vary among the different areas of pharmacy practice, the bottom line is that pharmacists help patients get well. Pharmacist responsibilities include a range of care for patients, from dispensing medications to monitoring patient health and progress to maximize their response to the medication. Pharmacists also educate consumers and patients on the use of prescriptions and over-the-counter medications, and advise physicians, nurses, and other health professionals on drug decisions. Pharmacists also provide expertise about the composition of drugs, including their chemical, biological, and physical properties and their manufacture and use. They ensure drug purity and strength and make sure that drugs do not interact in a harmful way. Pharmacists are drug experts ultimately concerned about their patients' health and wellness. The principal goal of pharmaceutical care is to achieve positive outcomes from the use of medication which improves patients' quality of life with minimum risk. Pharmacists strive to
• Cure disease;
• Eliminate or reduce symptoms;
• Arrest or slow a disease process;
• Prevent disease; Diagnose disease; and
• Alter physiological processes for desire

Pharmacology and Pharmacy

Pharmacists also educate consumers and patients on the use of prescriptions and over-the-counter medications, and advise physicians, nurses, and other health professionals on drug decisions. Pharmacists also provide expertise about the composition of drugs, including their chemical, biological, and physical properties and their manufacture and use. They ensure drug purity and strength and make sure that drugs do not interact in a harmful way. Pharmacists are drug experts ultimately concerned about their patients' health and wellness.Professional Commitment: The principal goal of pharmaceutical care is to achieve positive outcomes from the use of medication that improves patients' quality of life with minimum risk. Pharmacists are professionals, uniquely prepared and available, committed to public service and to the achievement of the followings goals. Pharmacists strive to Pharmacology is defined as the study of the interaction of drugs with living systems. Pharmacology is an essential component in the study of pharmacy and is included as one of the six major areas of instruction in the pharmacy degree curriculum. Pharmacy students study pharmacology to learn the effects of various doses of medicinal substances, as well as the different ways in which medicine can be introduced into the body. The effects of poisons and the means to overcome them are studied in toxicology. Generally, animal tests are required to learn the strength of drugs. Physicians know a great deal about pharmacology and toxicology; yet, as the expert about drugs, the pharmacist must maintain this knowledge to an even greater extent. This subject has a fascinating history and continues to be relevant in modern times. It deals with a number of questions. Pharmacy is a licensed health profession in which pharmacists provide information regarding medication to consumers and health care professionals. Pharmacists are "medication experts", concerned with disease state management and safe guarding the public's health in matters relating to medication distribution and use. To practice pharmacy in the U.S., all new graduates must earn a Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) degree and pass a state license examination. While responsibilities vary among the different areas of pharmacy practice, the bottom line is that pharmacists help patients get well. Pharmacist responsibilities include a range of care for patients, from dispensing medications to monitoring patient health and progress to maximize their response to the medication. Pharmacists also educate consumers and patients on the use of prescriptions and over-the-counter medications, and advise physicians, nurses, and other health professionals on drug decisions. Pharmacists also provide expertise about the composition of drugs, including their chemical, biological, and physical properties and their manufacture and use. They ensure drug purity and strength and make sure that drugs do not interact in a harmful way. Pharmacists are drug experts ultimately concerned about their patients' health and wellness.Professional Commitment: The principal goal of pharmaceutical care is to achieve positive outcomes from the use of medication that improves patients' quality of life with minimum risk. Pharmacists are professionals, uniquely prepared and available, committed to public service and to the achievement of the followings goals.

DOUBLE DNA

Double stranded DNA has relatively small grooves as opposed to the larger grooves on RNA molecules. This provides ample docking space for damaging enzymes. A further test of the stability of DNA over RNA is if you mix RNA into a dilute NaOH solution, it will completely destroy the molecule at room temperature, while DNA is unaffected. DNA is therefore, a more stable repository of genetic.

RNA VERSUS DNA

The cell contains various kinds of nucleotides with ribose as the sugar component. The nucleic acid RNA has ribose as its sugar. In evolutionary history, there is a large school of thought that believes that ribonucleic acids came before deoxyribonucleic acids. why and how is DNA more stable than RNA? This is one of the most fundamental questions.